Mathematics is usually thought to be a model of absolute clarity of thought achieved with the use of symbols and, hence, no place for Scholastics to be delving. But a prerequisite of most mathematics is analysis of concepts confusedly present in experience, and in this the Scholastics were masters.
The medieval lawyers were the first to consider explicitly the grading of the degrees of proof, with some discussion of how fine it should be; the combination of different pieces of evidence for the same conclusion; and the conflict of different pieces of evidence bearing on the same conclusion. The resulting theory is a coherent one. It is not numerical, and there is no reason to think that it would have been improved if it had been numerical. On the contrary, since modern (English) law has a similar theory, and insists on keeping it nonnumerical,1 there is every reason to believe the medievals were correct in avoiding numbers.
Lamennais and [John Henry] Newman felt sharply, and tried to deflect, modernity’s relentless demand for reasons. Newman wrote that “rationalism,” by which he meant not just denying but overthinking religion, was “the great evil of the day.” If faith was shown to be unreasonable, would not the reasonableness of morality be next?
A disillusioned progressive, Adams saw people en masse as well-intentioned but biddable. Political engagement was part, but not the larger part, of their lives. Without a vigilant-enough citizenry, his country’s admirable democratic institutions had been captured by moneyed interests, which paid politicians to govern in the people’s name. To Adams, it was a sordid bargain.
While I would never discount the great achievements that Western medicine has given overall to human health, if we spent half as much money and time trying to invent a better placebo—or, maybe more accurately, better ways to train our immune system to protect our bodies—we’d likely discover entirely new ways to treat disease. This is, of course, where it’s beneficial to consider the relationship between the environment and human physiology as a wedge to help control and strengthen the immune system itself.
